Religion and Aging

Susan H. McFadden

University of Wisconsin Oshkosh

Religion has long been regarded as a taboo topic in psychology and gerontology. However, evidence of high levels of religious involvement among many older persons suggests the need for inquiry about the origins, structures, functions, and outcomes of a wide variety of emotions, cognitive processes, and behaviors in later life. In addition, a number of well-designed, carefully controlled studies of health and well-being have demonstrated the salutary effects of older adults' religiosity (McFadden, 1995, 1996). This research has laid the foundation for investigations of the complex mechanisms that produce the apparently protective effects of religiosity. Also, recognition of the highly differentiated nature of religion points toward the possibility of studies of its effects on maladaptive feelings, beliefs, and behaviors.

Religion is a multidimensional construct articulated through a vast diversity of expressions. Researchers interested in investigating religion and aging need to be aware of the many forms of religion and religiosity and their differential effects on psychological phenomena. Also, because increasing numbers of persons identify themselves not as religious in a traditional sense but rather as spiritual in their orientation to life, gerontologists need to expand their horizons of interest to include meditative practices and ritual expressions that are not associated with major world religions.

In addition to becoming familiar with the many recent publications on religion and aging (see Moberg, 1996, for a review), gerontologists would be well served by learning more about the renewed vigor in both research and theory in the psychology of religion. Books by Paloutzian (1966) and Wulff (1991) as well as articles published in the International Journal for the Psychology of Religion represent excellent resources. Information can also be obtained through the Internet (http://www.gasou.edu/psychweb/psyrelig/psyrelig.htm).

One development in the psychology of religion with implications for the study of adult development and aging is the growing interest in the use of attachment theory as a conceptual framework for understanding adults' images of God, meditative practices, responses to stress, and social behaviors (Kirkpatrick, 1992). The emotions associated with social support in religious settings, public religious participation, and private religious practice may be affected by attachment processes with important implications for observed outcomes such as health and well-being. Attachment theory also suggests possibilities for research on the origins of emotion biases in personality and the ways these shape patterns of religious participation and practice. Conversely, life span developmental research can reveal the long-term effects of early religious training on emotion experience and beliefs about emotion.

Because religious beliefs and behaviors have the power to moderate emotion, many religious persons turn to religion as resource in coping. Research indicates that many older persons employ religious coping in response to illness, the deaths of loved ones, and anticipation of their own deaths. Pargament's studies of religious coping have revealed its complexities in terms of the types of problems addressed, the strategies employed, and the effectiveness of various ways of utilizing religious resources. Pargament has also noted that for some persons in some circumstances, religious coping processes may produce deleterious effects by encouraging people to impose their values on others, employ rigid and ineffective responses to stress, and view their suffering as a deserved punishment (Pargament & Park, 1996; Pargament, Van Haitsma, & Ensing, 1995).

Pargament's studies of coping point to a number of issues related to the cognitive processes employed by religious persons. Religion can shape the cognitive appraisal of stressful situations as well as the appraisal of personal resources available to respond to stress. In addition, religion influences attributional processes activated by situations that threaten a sense of meaning, control, and self-esteem (Spilka, Hood, & Gorsuch, 1985). Another area of research on the cognitive psychology of aging that invites consideration of religion's effects is the emerging study of social cognition (Blanchard-Fields & Abeles, 1996). Psychologists interested in social cognitive processes and the construction of beliefs about others, the self, and everyday events could investigate how religion functions as a source of social knowledge.

Research on age- and cohort-related effects upon moral reasoning also benefits from the inclusion of consideration of religion. For example, one study found that older adults who were more religiously orthodox and who engaged in little religious reflection showed less complex reasoning about moral and religious dilemmas (Pratt, Hunsberger, Pancer & Roth, 1992). Psychologists of religion have become increasingly interested in the relation of religious fundamentalism and right-wing authoritarianism to prejudice (Hunsberger, 1995); these studies need to be expanded to include older persons, as suggested by Kastenbaum's (1993) description of "encrusted elders" who perpetuate patterns of racial discrimination.

On the other hand, a religious orientation that embraces openness to change, questions, and even doubt can promote altruistic behavior, as noted in the research of Batson and his colleagues (Batson, Schoenrade, & Ventis, 1993). Because most of these studies have been conducted with younger adults, research on the effects of older persons' religious attitudes on their interpersonal behavior is needed. Recent indications of the possibilities for relativistic, postformal operational thought in later life (Sinnott, 1994) should be examined in light of research demonstrating older adults' prosocial behavior (e.g., Midlarsky & Hannah, 1989). Sinnott has written that research on postformal cognitive processes may also provide insight into spirituality as expressed through unitative states of consciousness, awareness of multiple realities, and elder wisdom.

These are just a few suggestions of how key issues can be reframed if religion is considered both as a dependent and an independent variable in the study of adult developmental processes. Perhaps as a sign of its own maturity, psychology appears to be more tolerant of considering the many complexities that arise in the design and interpretation of research that includes "the religion variable". In addition, practitioners are beginning to investigate the ways religion can function as a resource for individual and community well-being (Maton & Wells, 1995). Because so many older persons turn to religion and religious institutions in times of need, gerontologists have become aware of possibilities for creative alliances with the religious community.

The direct and indirect effects of religion on emotion, cognition, and behavior merit continued attention from researchers and practitioners. If they can overcome their own anxieties about the "anti-tenure factor" (Sherrill & Larson, 1994) and concerns about introducing religious issues into psychotherapy (Ventis, 1995), they will discover new avenues for empirical investigation and mental health intervention.

References

Batson, C. D., Schoenrade, P., & Ventis, W. L. (1993). Religion and the individual: A social-psychological perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.

Blanchard-Fields, F., & Abeles, R. P. (1996). Social cognition and aging. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (4th ed., pp. 150-161). San Diego: Academic Press.

Hunsberger, B. (1995). Religion and prejudice: The role of religious fundamentalism, quest, and right-wing authoritarianism. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 113-129.

Kastenbaum, R. (1993). Encrusted elders: Arizona and the political spirit of postmodern aging. In T. R. Cole, W. A. Achenbaum, P. L. Jakobi, & R. Kastenbaum (Eds.), Voices and visions of aging: Toward a critical gerontology (pp. 160-183). New York: Springer.

Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1992). An attachment-theory approach to the psychology of religion. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 2, 3-28.

Maton, K. I., & Wells, E. A. (1995). Religion as a community resource for well-being: Prevention, healing, and empowerment pathways. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 177-193.

McFadden, S. H. (1995). Religion and well-being in aging persons in an aging society. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 161-175.

McFadden, S. H. (1996). Religion, spirituality, and aging. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of Aging (4th ed., pp. 162-177). San Diego: Academic Press.

Midlarsky, E., & Hannah, M. E. (1989). The generous elderly: Naturalistic studies of donations across the life span. Psychology and Aging, 4, 346-351.

Moberg, D. O. (1996). Religion in gerontology: From benign neglect to belated respect. The Gerontologist, 36, 264-267.

Paloutzian, R. F. (1996). Invitation to the psychology of religion (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Pargament, K. I., & Park, C. L. (1995). Merely a defense? The variety of religious means and ends. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 13-22.

Pargament, K. I., Van Haitsma, K. S., & Ensing, D. S. (1995). Religion and coping. In M. A. Kimble, S. H. McFadden, J. W. Ellor, & J. J. Seeber (Eds.), Aging, spirituality, and religion: A handbook (pp. 47-67). Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Pratt, M. W., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Roth, D. (1992). Reflections on religion: Aging, belief orthodoxy, and interpersonal conflict in the complexity of adult thinking about religious issues. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 31, 514-522.

Sherrill, K. A., & Larson, D. B. (1994). The anti-tenure factor in religious research in clinical epidemiology and aging. In J. S. Levin (Ed.), Religion in aging and health (pp. 149-177). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Sinnott, J. D. (1994). Development and yearning: Cognitive aspects of spiritual development. Journal of Adult Development, 1, 91-99.

Spilka, B., Hood, R. W., Jr., & Gorsuch, R. L. (1985). The psychology of religion: An empirical approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Ventis, W. L. (1995). The relationships between religion and mental health. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 33-48.

Wulff, D. M. (1991). Psychology of religion: Classic and contemporary views. New York: Wiley.

To direct comments about the information contained in these pages, please write to marsiske@ufl.edu